Month: March 2024

Have You Seen Incised Fumewort?

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two-toned lavender flowers of incided fumewort
Incised fumewort (Corydalis incisa). Photo: Miri Talabac, University of Maryland Extension

Have you seen incised fumewort (Corydalis incisa)? This frilly, little wildflower is surprisingly invasive. Originally from East Asia, this species has been spreading southward along the I-95 corridor from New York since 2005. The first iNaturalist observations of incised fumewort in Maryland were made in the spring of 2018. As of this writing, Maryland contains 259 Research Grade observations. Many gardeners report that the seeds must have been present in potted plants or mulch that they purchased. In our parks, incised fumewort quickly outcompetes native spring wildflowers, and particularly dramatic declines in Virginia bluebells have been observed in the Bull Run floodplain (Northern Virginia).

Incised fumewort came into bloom in mid-March this year and normally continues blooming until early April. Seeds ripen within three weeks of blooming. Ripe seeds are explosively dispersed up to 10 feet away from their parent plants. They may also be dispersed by flowing water, tracked mud. Some reports indicate they are dispersed by ants.

Gardeners and landscape maintenance professionals tell us that manual control is unreliable at best. In some cases, even very persistent, frequent episodes of manual control have failed. Chemical control is more effective, but has its own challenges, such as unintended damage to nearby native plants.

In either case, it helps to understand that the species is biennial. The flowers of second-year plants are easy to see, but seedlings are inconspicuous. If management only targets flowering plants, that can be a viable strategy. But for folks who didn’t realize there were also seedlings present, it can be shocking to see that despite all your hard work there are even more flowering plants the next year. This gives the impression that management is failing, which may or may not be true. My casual observation is that seedlings (dicotyledons present) germinate in both spring and fall. I suppose the spring germinators go dormant for the summer and re-emerge in fall while the other seeds are germinating. The resulting rosettes are fully evergreen. The rosettes have a small, soil-colored tuber. For those of you doing manual control, make sure to remove it.

volunteer uses a mobile photo to document invasive incised fumewort displacing VA bluebells

You can help by reporting this plant when you see it. You can do that quickly and easily using the iNaturalist app. Just point, click, and upload. There is even a space there where you can leave us some notes. Your observation will contribute to a publicly available map that is used by many land management agencies and their volunteers (Weed Warriors) to prevent new infestations from becoming established.

If you would like to read more about incised fumewort biology, a native look-alike, and making iNaturalist reports, check out this article by the National Park Service.

By Sara Tangren, Ph.D., Environmental Program Coordinator, National Capital PRISM, Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments. This article was published originally in the University of Maryland Extension IPM Alert, March 22, 2024.

Getting Rid of Invasive Plants: Solarization, Smothering, Repeated Cutting, Herbicides?

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Asian honeysuckle has white flowers
Invasive Asian honeysuckle (Lonicera sp.). Photo: Rachel J. Rhodes, UME

Eliminating unwanted plants is often one of the most challenging chores that gardeners face. Not introducing invasive plants is the fastest and most economical way to make a positive impact, as once invasive plants are introduced to your garden, it can take many years to eliminate these invaders from your landscape. 

Invasive plants propagate and spread by many different methods, which makes controlling them difficult and different for each species. Please learn feasible control tactics provided by land-grant universities or Extension factsheets/webpages before starting. Fact-based research is the absolute first step in getting ahead of plant invaders. Often invasive plants cannot be controlled 100% in just one growing season, but preventing the plant from making seeds or spreading is better than doing nothing at all.

Questions to guide your research: 

  1. Get proper plant identification! Use Ask Extension, Local Extension Professionals, and Master Gardener Plant Clinics. Smartphone plant ID apps can give you some idea, but you should follow up and confirm the correct identification. Apps may be limited by photo quality and geographic area.
    1. Is the plant a woody perennial, herbaceous perennial, or annual? 
    2. Has the plant been a problem for several years in your landscape, or is it a relatively new concern? 
  2. You must know how it is reproducing/spreading in your particular situation. For example, if the plant reproduces from stem/root cuttings, the last action you want to take is to mow/weed-eat/till the roots, which would cause the plant to produce hundreds of new plants.  
  3. If controlling 100% is not a feasible option, determine how you can prevent the plants from spreading or allowing them to get stronger. 
  4. If you have an invasive plant in your landscape and you really enjoy it, learn how to prevent it from spreading. For example, the spread of some plants can be prevented by removing flowers/viable seeds so that wildlife does not consume and spread them, or so that wind/rain does not blow away the seeds. 
  5. Always include “MD Extension” with internet search engines to be sure that identification and control tactics specific to Maryland are being filtered to the top of your results.
purple and blue berries of invasive porcelainberry vines
Invasive porcelain-berry vines (Ampelopsis glandulosa var. brevipedunculata). Photo: Rachel J. Rhodes, UME

Three basic control options are categorized below.

Mechanical control

Mechanical control options are often the first step that people take in controlling unwanted plants; however, these are by far the most physically demanding and often lead to a high level of site disturbance. Examples of mechanical control are:

  1. Pulling  and digging.
  2. Suffocation or smothering with landscape fabric, mulch, cardboard, multiple layers of newspaper, anything to block the sunlight and prevent the plant from growing.
  3. Solarization: laying plastic over the plants to “cook” live plants and viable seeds with the heat that builds up underneath. 
  4. Cutting, repeated cutting, or mowing in hopes of weakening stored nutrients so that the plants can not regenerate. This is also done to remove the flowering/seed structures. 

Biological control 

Biological control options utilize something else that is alive—insects, fungi, grazing livestock animals, etc. More and more of these options are being explored; however, sometimes the control agent may be 100% specific to the problem plant, or sometimes it may be able to feed on other plants too, which is the case with the Kudzu bug.  

Kudzu bug (Megacopta cribraria). Photo: Russ Ottens, University of Georgia, Bugwood.org

Chemical control through herbicide application

  1. Foliar Applications
  2. Cut Stem or “Hack and Squirt” Treatments

Herbicides are a management tool that may be considered when other control measures have not been successful. Sometimes this control option provides the least amount of physical labor, low soil disturbance, and is more effective than other options. Pesticides can be overwhelming and intimidating, with misinformation and inaccurate “facts” being shared. If you would like to learn more about “mode of action” and how different herbicides are classified, check out this Herbicide Mode of Action link from Purdue.

A few questions that might help you determine if it’s time to explore herbicides as an option. 

  1. Have you tried mechanical or physical control options without success? 
  2. Would one application of herbicide save the soil on the site from being excavated, dug, or destroyed?  
  3. Always use the most appropriate chemical control option by finding the plant that you want to control on the product label and following the application instructions carefully.
  4. Remember, with any pesticide (herbicide, insecticide, fungicide, rodenticide, etc.), the Label is the LAW! This is true even with organic pesticides. 
  5. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is charged with approving, analyzing, and standing behind pesticides. Before approval, these herbicides are tested and labeled for use with specific instructions to minimize negative risk to yourself and the environment. Always use in accordance with the label and keep good records.
    1. Herbicides that are commercially available to purchase have been tested to know the recommended rates and residual activity in soils and on micro/macro organisms. There are a lot of unknowns with homemade solutions, so homemade “remedies” are not recommended.
Invasive winged burning bush (Euonymus alatus). Photo: Rachel J. Rhodes, UME

Disposal of invasive plants

The last step in controlling invasive plants is proper disposal. Leftover plant materials can lead to potential accidental new infestations.

Proper disposal guidance: 

  1. Burn– If your county/city allows the burning of yard debris, be sure to follow all safety regulations and restrictions and do not breathe the smoke.
  2. Pile– Fully dead/dried woody material that does not have seeds/fruits and is not covered in soil (which could allow it to sprout roots) can provide great nesting and shelter sites for wildlife- Read “The Value of a Pile of Sticks in Your Yard or Landscape”. 
  3. Dry or expose debris to intense heat– place debris in a black trash bag and let it “cook” for several weeks out in the hot sun, this will ensure that there are no viable seeds in the debris and all moisture is removed so that nothing can sprout. You can then add this to compost piles or dispose of it as you would “normal” landscape trimmings.
  4. Check with your county/city government to find out if invasive plants should go in your yard waste or regular trash.
English ivy (Hedera helix)
Heavenly bamboo (Nandina domestica)
Yellow flag iris (Iris pseudacorus)

Let the particular plant that you are trying to control guide your management plan, and research the plant before you begin. Start control strategies on a small scale to see what works best and remember that many of the characteristics that led people to begin planting these invasives are the exact reasons that they are hard to control— some examples: wildlife resistance, good at spreading, breaking dormancy before natives early in the season. Also, keep in mind that many invasive species are a long-term fight and will require perseverance and, for best results, will require the use of different control tactics. 

Lastly, once you successfully control the problem species, have a clear plan of what you will do with this space in your landscape. Installing new plants or keeping the area mulched will help prevent soil erosion or new infestations of weeds. Here is a list of recommended native plants for Maryland. 

Additional resources: 

Removing Invasive Plants and Planting Natives in Maryland – University of Maryland Extension

(PDF) Managing Invasive Plants: Methods of Control – New England Wildflower Society

(PDF) Guidelines for Disposal of Terrestrial Invasive Plants – University of Connecticut

Everyone can help in the fight against invasive plants! Check the University of Maryland Extension website for an Introduction to Invasive Plants in Maryland and more information on how to reduce them. The absolute best way is to just never plant or introduce them into your landscape. 

By Ashley Bodkins, Senior Agent Associate and Master Gardener Coordinator, Garrett County, Maryland. Read more posts by Ashley.

Topping Harms the Health of Trees

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A topped tree growing water sprouts. Photo: UME-HGIC

I love trees. I’m betting you do, too. They’re striking and statuesque. They shade us and inspire us, offer wildlife habitat, and provide a backbone to our landscapes.  

But sometimes bad things happen to good trees. Well-intentioned but harmful practices such as topping threaten their health.

Pruning is good for trees. Done well, it can help to control size, remove potentially hazardous branches and improve both appearance and health. But bad pruning is harmful and can kill trees.

Topping – whacking off large limbs indiscriminately to stubs – is a very bad practice indeed. It’s damaging, dangerous, and expensive.

According to Dr. Alex Shigo, the world-renowned scientist and author of books on tree care, topping is the most serious injury you can inflict on a tree.  

Why do people top trees? Most have trees too big for their space and feel topping is a good way to control size and prevent hazards. It’s not. Topping weakens trees.

In fact, a topped tree is much more prone to problems, including poor health and an inclination to drop branches or fall.    

Leaves are food factories for trees. Since topping removes much of the leaf-bearing crown of a tree, it literally starves it.  

Topped trees react by forcing out fistfuls of thin shoots around the cut to make more leaves.  Creating these shoots drains even more energy.

A stressed tree is more vulnerable to insect and disease problems. The large, open wounds topping creates invite attack.  

Good pruning cuts are made where a branch meets the trunk or another branch. Trees can heal this type of cut. Topping cuts in the middle of a branch create ugly stubs that often don’t heal.  

Multiple large cuts – a staple of topping – create serious wounds. The exposed wood often decays and creates a pathway for infection. Columns of decay from repeat topping make a tree more likely to fall.

The multiple thin shoots that form near a topping cut are weak and bring problems all their own. They aren’t anchored in deep tissue like a normal branch, so they tend to break.  

The thick regrowth of new branches also makes a tree top-heavy and more likely to catch the wind in a storm. 

Also, topping is expensive. Topped trees need to be pruned regularly due to the rapid regrowth of all those skinny branches. Repeat toppings are more costly in the long run than proper professional pruning.  

Topping has hidden costs, too. Weakened trees are more likely to cause damage by falling or dropping branches. And disfigured trees do nothing to enhance property values. 

According to the International Society of Arboriculture, well-maintained, healthy trees can add 10 to 20 percent to the value of your property, while topped trees reduce value.  

If a tree has overgrown its space, know that there are better options, including crown reduction or removal and replacement with a smaller tree. Just be safe and leave the big jobs for the pros.    

Here’s our fact sheet on tree pruning that tells you more.   

Topped trees are ugly, unhealthy, hazardous, and costly. Please don’t top your trees. I want you to enjoy happy, healthy trees for a very long time. 

By Annette Cormany, Principal Agent Associate and Master Gardener Coordinator, Washington County, University of Maryland Extension.

This article was previously published by Herald-Mail Media. Read more by Annette.

Q&A: What Screening Plants Fit in a Small Space?

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a row of small evergreen arborvitae shrubs near a brick building
‘Emerald Green’ Arborvitae screening a property line. Photo: Miri Talabac, University of Maryland Extension


Q:  I have limited space in a tiny city front yard and would like to block some of my view of the street. What types of evergreens would work well but not get too wide?

A:  The width of the mature plants is the tricky part, since many upright evergreens mature at least 3 to 5 feet wide at their base, and not many are trimmable to keep them smaller. Plant options will depend on whether you have full sun or some shade from nearby trees or the house itself. Few city yards have issues with deer (though some do), so I’ll assume for now that browsing is not a factor.

Soil compaction is a common challenge, and poor drainage (is a roof downspout nearby?) can exacerbate root stress and cause plants to fail. If the site drains reasonably well and receives full sun in summer, your choices include slender-growing cultivars of widely-used evergreens. (Alas, there are very few native options to fit these criteria.) Examples include arborvitae (Thuja), juniper (Juniperus), yew (Taxus), Japanese plum yew (Cephalotaxus), boxwood (Buxus), and holly (Ilex).

Yew as well as broadleaf evergreens like the boxwood and holly can be pruned relatively easily to manage size, since they rebound well. Even so, it’s best to select cultivars that will mature close to the size you can accommodate without having to prune, both to save yourself the task and to reduce plant stress.

For the rest of those listed plants, especially other conifers (needled evergreens), pay close attention to expected mature size on the plant tag and make sure you have room, taking into account overhead utility lines. Take that stated size with a grain of salt too, since older plants keep growing and will not plateau at a set height forever.

Yew, Japanese plum yew, boxwood, and holly will handle a fair amount of shade and still look good, though the less sun they get, the less dense they might stay (or growth will slow). None of these species are super fast-growing (otherwise they’d get much too large for the space), but boxwoods and the upright yew varieties are among the slowest in pace. Even so, planting small, young specimens will be easier on both you and the plants (especially if shade tree roots are infiltrating the area), and they will catch up.

By Miri Talabac, Horticulturist, University of Maryland Extension Home & Garden Information Center. Miri writes the Garden Q&A for The Baltimore Sun and Washington Gardener Magazine. Read more by Miri.

Have a plant or insect question? The University of Maryland Extension has answers! Send your questions and photos to Ask Extension. Our horticulturists are available to answer your questions online, year-round.

Stem-Nesting Bees in Maryland

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With their large diversity, bees display a huge variety of nesting preferences. Some bees that are relatively commonly encountered in our region are those that nest in stems. In today’s post, I want to tell you about who they are, their biology, and their preferences when the time comes for them to pick their nesting sites.

Who are the stem-nesting bees in our region?

When we consider bees that nest in stems, we can think about two main groups. In the first group, we have bees that actively dig into pithy stems or wood to build their galleries. In the second group, we have those that use pre-existing cavities in stems and slightly adjust them to accommodate their brood. This difference may seem trivial; at the end of the day, they will all end up in stems, right? Well, that is true to some extent; however, whether we talk about one group or the other will define what actual taxonomic group of bees we’ll be referring to, and a different set of morphological adaptations that allow them to build their nests properly.

In our region both types of bees are present and many of them are relatively common and easily observed in our green spaces.

Stem nesters that dig their nests

In addition to large carpenter bees (Xylocopa), this group includes Halictid bees such as Augochlora and the Apidae Ceratina. Because they all have to dig actively into stems to build their nests inside, all these bees are equipped with very strong mandibles, which have modifications that reinforce them, and strong muscles that allow them to increase the force they can exert on the stems.

a metallic green bee going into a stem nest cavity
Metallic bees are very common in our region. They often can be found emerging or looking for wooden resources to build their nests. Photo: K. Shultz (CC).

Depending on the species, we can find them building nests on different substrates. While Augochlora can often be found building galleries in rotten logs, Ceratina is mostly associated with stems that tend to be a bit hollower, such as those of raspberries and blackberries (you can check out this other post on how to trim those plants to protect their nests), or those of plants of the genus Verbena. In all these cases, the nests have the shape of a gallery, with small cells built consecutively. Each of these cells is carefully built, provisioned with nectar and pollen, populated with one egg, and finally sealed with sawdust or compacted pith.

Stem nesters that use stem cavities that already exist

Several families of bees belong to this group in the Mid-Atlantic. Species of the genus Hylaeus in the family Colletidae are present in our region, and readily nest in hollow stems. Another group that is very commonly seen in our region is that of leaf-cutter bees (Megachilidae). Although this group tends to be more flexible in the types of cavities they will use for building their nests, many species will readily use natural or artificial “stem-like” cavities (these bees are very common in bee hotels).

several bees nesting inside of a plant stem
A small bee commonly seen in bee hotels is that of genus Hylaeus, also known as the yellow-faced bees. These bees will readily use small hollow stems and cavities. Photo: R. Cruickshank (CC).
Stem-nesting bees (Hylaeus) were observed in a raspberry cane on May 10, 2023, in Montgomery County, MD. Video: Christa Carignan, University of Maryland Extension

Because these groups do not need to actively dig into wood to build their nests, their mandibles are not as developed as those of the other group of bees I presented above. A common characteristic of all these bees is that they have relatively long and slender bodies, which is believed to allow them to move with more ease in relatively small cavities. It is also for this reason that specialists think that all these species transport pollen either internally or on the lower part of their abdomens (instead of on their legs, for example); this reduces their “width” and allows them to fit into cavities that may otherwise be too narrow. Another characteristic of this group of bees is that they often line their brood cells with special materials, such as leaves, petals, resins, or mud. This means that building these nests is a lot of work!

leaf-cutter bee carrying a leaf piece to a nest
Leaf-cutter bees of genus Megachile are also very commonly seen in bee hotels and nesting in cavities around our homes. Here, M. centuncularis, brings leaf cuttings to line the nest in a cavity offered in a bee hotel. Photo: B. Plank (CC).

Although bees (and most insects) are generally negatively affected by urbanization, this group of bees appears to benefit from their interactions with humans. Unlike ground-nesting bees which are very negatively affected by land development and urbanization, it seems that stem-nesting bees can easily use many cavities created by humans, such as those appearing in buildings, walls, fences, and gardens.

Read more: This Year, Host Bees in Your Garden

By Anahí Espíndola, Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology, University of Maryland, College Park. See more posts by Anahí.

Anahí also writes an award-winning Extension Blog in Spanish! Check it out here, extensionesp.umd.edu, and please share and spread the word to your Spanish-speaking friends and colleagues in Maryland. ¡Bienvenidos a Extensión en Español!

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What is Low-Till Gardening?

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In today’s post, I am going to focus on how to embrace low-till gardening systems, but first a quick refresher on soil.

The importance of soil

  1. Soil is a living and complex natural covering of the Earth. 
  2. Soil acts as a sponge to absorb water, nutrients, pollutants, and carbon. 
  3. Many aspects of soil cannot be changed, but properties can be managed to provide the elements needed to grow desired plants and it is the pillar of plant life in your landscape/ecosystem.
    1. Chemical, physical, and biological components make up the living soil. 
    2. Soil scientists are only beginning to understand the complex biological systems and how important they are to overall soil health.
  4. Topsoil is the usable portion for gardeners. Thus, all management techniques should aim to protect and enhance this valuable layer.
a row of plants in a freshly tilled garden
What you might see in a traditional in-ground garden with soil tilled in between the rows of desired plants. Image by Nadezhda56 from Pixabay

Pros and cons of tilling garden soil

In-ground gardening techniques have long been the method of vegetable gardening used in large-scale production. This system focuses on the mechanical tilling of a section of the earth. This soil is prepared and then seeds or transplants are placed in rows. In between these rows of plants is the walkway, which is either tilled at regular intervals or mulched to prevent weeds from growing. This technique works well but results in high levels of soil disturbance. Mechanical tillers require the use of a motor or a large amount of physical labor/exertion if done by hand. Once the soil is tilled, it is more likely to suffer from soil compaction. 

100% no-till gardening options

For alternative gardening methods that are 100% no-till, learn more by visiting these links:

Growing in Containers– University of Maryland Extension

Raised Beds– University of Maryland Extension

Lasagna Gardening or Sheet Mulching– Oregon State University Extension

Although tilling is the easiest and fastest way to create new planting areas and is also used as a weed control option, mechanical tilling of the soil (especially multiple times throughout the season) breaks down its structure and can reduce soil quality.

Negative effects of repeated mechanical tillage

Repeated tillage:

  1. Breaks down organic matter. The more often you are churning the soil the more the natural structure can be degraded and compacted. It disturbs natural pathways for water flow and for soil macro- and microorganisms. 
  2. Reduces soil stability by breaking apart aggregates.
  3. Exposes rocks and deeper layers of soil that are less developed.
  4. Exposes the seed bank of the soil to light and allows new weed seeds to germinate.  
an an exapleof a no-till garden with grassy paths between plantings
Image by Stéphane CHADOURNE from Pixabay

Differences between conventional and low-till systems

Low-till gardening systems often look different than traditional gardening systems. Low-till management techniques focus more on installing permanent pathways that are not disturbed yearly. These pathways may be outlined with stones or other permanent items. In the actual planting bed, low tilling is done with a handheld tool to create the planting space. Often these tilled areas would be smaller in size. 

Implement these practices slowly and expand as you have success. 

  1. Use a broadfork to loosen the topsoil, but do not dig deeper than necessary. This allows the natural pathways made by micro- and macroorganisms (earthworm tunnels) and plant roots to stay intact. 
  2. Keep the soil covered. Use mulch to prevent erosion. Mulch sourced from your landscape such as pine needles, grass clippings, clean straw, newspaper, cardboard, etc. can be used.
    1. Mother Nature always wants the soil to be covered. If you disturb the soil and do not cover it with mulch or other weed barrier, plants, or seeds, then weeds will grow. Wind and rain can quickly dissipate topsoil— replacing one inch of natural topsoil can take 500-1000 years! If the soil is covered it should not be as easy to wash or blow away.
    2. Add organic matter– whatever you have readily available. Mushroom compost, bagged cow manure, homemade compost, leaves, grass clippings, kitchen waste, etc. 
    3. Plant crops (cover crops, green manure) that will be cut down and left to decompose naturally in the soil or lightly turned in with a broadfork.
      1. Comfrey (Symphytum officinale) and other plants can provide large amounts of nutrients when used as mulch.
  3. Fertilize and amend the soil based on analysis results. Test your soil every 3 years.
    1. Add fertilizer sources through amendments.
  4. Till or disturb the soil as close to planting time as possible. This helps to minimize the time when no plant roots are helping to stabilize the soil. 

More details on improving soil structure can be found in the blog post:  How Can You Improve Your Soil?

bean plants growing in a no-till garden
Malabar spinach growing with corn. Example of companion planting in a no-till garden. Image by MAURÍCIO UCHÔA Bruttos from Pixabay

More on low-till gardens

Low-till is part of some permaculture practices. Permaculture practices have a goal of creating “permanent” growing spaces that utilize natural self-sustaining systems. Some of these permaculture practices can be adapted and used in our landscapes, especially those that include native plant areas, perennial fruits, and herbs. Other terms that incorporate these ideas and principles are food forests or forest gardening.

Tillage is a good tool, just remember to use it at the right time and for the right purpose to capture the benefits. Good soil management practices may be open to interpretation based on your personal goals for your garden space and remember that what makes sense in your landscape doesn’t always have to match what others are doing. If you are seeing positive results, then keep trying new techniques.

I hope that this Spring finds you dreaming and excited about the upcoming growing season and making a positive impact in adding diversity to your landscape. 

Resources for more information

Soil management in home gardens and landscapes | Penn State University

No-till gardening keeps soil — and plants — healthy | Oregon State University

Low and no-till gardening | University of New Hampshire

By Ashley Bodkins, Senior Agent Associate and Master Gardener Coordinator, Garrett County, Maryland. Read more posts by Ashley.

Grow an Heirloom Tomato This Year!

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2024 is Grow It Eat It’s Year of Heirloom Tomatoes! We’re going to have lots of resources available soon to help you celebrate these delicious and historic vegetables (botanically fruits), and we hope you’ll participate by planting a few in your garden. I thought, as an enthusiastic heirloom tomato gardener myself, I’d take a moment to make some introductions.

First of all, what is an heirloom tomato? Well, I think we know what a tomato is; what puts it in the same category as Grandma’s topaz necklace or Grandpa’s grandfather clock? They’re all handed down through the generations. “Heirloom” doesn’t have any single definition when it comes to vegetables. It can mean that the origin of a particular variety goes back more than 100 years, or 75 years, or that it was first grown before a certain date. Many people use World War II as a marker, because the growth of hybrid crops boomed in the subsequent decades, and a lot of older varieties disappeared from seed catalogs. Varieties grown in a particular community or culture, or through several generations in a particular family, are also considered heirlooms. Family names are often part of a variety name, which makes you feel like a cousin when you grow them!

Continue reading →